History of Geography and Physical Geography

Some of the first truly geographical studies occurred more than four thousand years ago. The main purpose of these early investigations was to map features and places observed as explorers traveled to new lands. At this time, Chinese, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations were beginning to explore the places and spaces within and outside their homelands. The earliest evidence of such explorations comes from the archaeological discovery of a Babylonian clay tablet map that dates back to 2300 BC.

The early Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form of geography that was more than mere map making or cartography. Greek philosophers and scientist were also interested in learning about spatial nature of human and physical features found on the Earth. One of the first Greek geographers was Herodotus (circa 484 - 425 BC). Herodotus wrote a number of volumes that described the human and physical geography of the various regions of the Persian Empire.

The ancient Greeks were also interested in the form, size, and geometry of the Earth. Aristotle (circa 384 - 322 BC) hypothesized and scientifically demonstrated that the Earth had a spherical shape. Evidence for this idea came from observations of lunar eclipses. Lunar eclipses occur when the Earth casts its circular shadow on to the moon's surface. The first individual to accurately calculate the circumference of the Earth was the Greek geographer Eratosthenes (circa 276 - 194 BC). Eratosthenes calculated the equatorial circumference to be 40,233 kilometers using simple geometric relationships. This primitive calculation was unusually accurate. Measurements of the Earth using modern satellite technology have computed the circumference to be 40,072 kilometers.

Most of the Greek accomplishments in geography were passed on to the Romans. Roman military commanders and administrators used this information to guide the expansion of their Empire. The Romans also made several important additions to geographical knowledge. Strabo (circa 64 BC - 20 AD) wrote a 17 volume series called "Geographia". Strabo claimed to have traveled widely and recorded what he had seen and experienced from a geographical perspective. In his series of books, Strabo describes the cultural geographies of the various societies of people found from Britain to as far east as India, and south to Ethiopia and as far north as Iceland. Strabo also suggested a definition of geography that is quite complementary to the way many human geographers define their discipline today. This definition suggests that the aim of geography was to "describe the known parts of the inhabited world ... to write the assessment of the countries of the world [and] to treat the differences between countries".

During the second century AD, Ptolemy (circa 100 - 178 AD) made a number of important contributions to geography. Ptolemy's publication Geographike hyphegesis or "Guide to Geography" compiled and summarize much of the Greek and Roman geographic information accumulated at that time. Some of his other important contributions include the creation of three different methods for projecting the Earth's surface on a map, the calculation of coordinate locations for some eight thousand places on the Earth, and development of the concepts of geographical latitude and longitude (Figure 1a-1).

Figure 1a-1: This early map of the world was constructed using map making techniques developed by Ptolemy. Note that the map is organized with crisscrossing lines of latitude and longitude.

Little academic progress in geography occurred after the Roman period. For the most part, the Middle Ages (5th to 13th centuries AD) were a time of intellectual stagnation. In Europe, the Vikings of Scandinavia were the only group of people carrying out active exploration of new lands. In the Middle East, Arab academics began translating the works of Greek and Roman geographers starting in the 8th century and began exploring southwestern Asia and Africa. Some of the important intellectuals in Arab geography were Al-Idrisi, Ibn Battutah, and Ibn Khaldun. Al-Idrisi is best known for his skill at making maps and for his work of descriptive geography Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq or "The Pleasure Excursion of One Who Is Eager to Traverse the Regions of the World". Ibn Battutah and Ibn Khaldun are well known for writing about their extensive travels of North Africa and the Middle East.

During the Renaissance (1400 to 1600 AD) numerous journeys of geographical exploration were commissioned by a variety of nation states in Europe. Most of these voyages were financed because of the potential commercial returns from resource exploitation. The voyages also provided an opportunity for scientific investigation and discovery. These voyages also added many significant contributions to geographic knowledge (Figure 1a-2). Important explorers of this period include Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, Jacques Cartier, Sir Martin Frobisher, Sir Francis Drake, John and Sebastian Cabot, and John Davis. Also during the Renaissance, Martin Behaim created a spherical globe depicting the Earth in its true three-dimensional form in 1492. Behaim's invention was a significant advance over two-dimensional maps because it created a more realistic depiction of the Earth's shape and surface configuration.

Figure 1a-2: This map was constructed by Oliva in 1560. It describes the known world at this time and suggests that North America is part of Asia. Further exploration of the world would soon reject this idea.

In the 17th century, Bernhardus Varenius (1622-1650) published an important geographic reference titled Geographia generalis (General Geography: 1650). In this volume, Varenius used direct observations and primary measurements to present some new ideas concerning geographic knowledge. This work continued to be a standard geographic reference for about a 100 years. Varenius also suggested that the discipline of geography could be subdivided into three distinct branches. The first branch examines the form and dimensions of the Earth. The second sub-discipline deals with tides, climatic variations over time and space, and other variables that are influenced by the cyclical movements of the Sun and moon. Together these two branches form the early beginning of what we collectively now call physical geography. The last branch of geography examined distinct regions on the Earth using comparative cultural studies. Today, this area of knowledge is called cultural geography.

During the 18th century, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) proposed that human knowledge could be organized in three different ways. One way of organizing knowledge was to classify its facts according to the type of objects studied. Accordingly, zoology studies animals, botany examines plants, and geology involves the investigation of rocks. The second way one can study things is according to a temporal dimension. This field of knowledge is of course called history. The last method of organizing knowledge involves understanding facts relative to spatial relationships. This field of knowledge is commonly known as geography. Kant also divided geography into a number of sub-disciplines. He recognized the following six branches: Physical, mathematical, moral, political, commercial, and theological geography.

Geographic knowledge saw strong growth in Europe and the United States in the 1800s. This period also saw the emergence of a number of societies interested in geographic issues. In Germany, Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Ritter, and Fredrich Ratzel made substantial contributions to human and physical geography. Humboldt's publication Kosmos (1844) examines the geology and physical geography of the Earth. This work is considered by many academics to be a milestone contribution to geographic scholarship. Late in the 19th Century, Ratzel theorized that the distribution and culture of the Earth's various human populations was strongly influenced by the natural environment. The French geographer Paul Vidal de la Blanche opposed this revolutionary idea. Instead, he suggested that human beings were a dominant force shaping the form of the environment. The idea that humans were modifying the physical environment was also prevalent in the United States. In 1847, George Perkins Marsh gave an address to the Agricultural Society of Rutland County, Vermont. The subject of this speech was that human activity was having a destructive impact on land, especially through deforestation and land conversion. This speech also became the foundation for his book Man and Nature or The Earth as Modified by Human Action, first published in 1864. In this publication, Marsh warned of the ecological consequences of the continued development of the American frontier.

During the first 50 years of the 1900s, many academics in the field of geography extended the various ideas presented in the previous century to studies of small regions all over the world. Most of these studies used descriptive field methods to test research questions. Starting in about 1950, geographic research experienced a shift in methodology. Geographers began adopting a more scientific approach that relied on quantitative techniques. The quantitative revolution was also associated with a change in the way in which geographers studied the Earth and its phenomena. Researchers now began investigating process rather than mere description of the event of interest. Today, the quantitative approach is becoming even more prevalent due to advances in computer and software technologies.

In 1964, William Pattison published an article in the Journal of Geography (1964, 63: 211-216) that suggested that modern Geography was now composed of the following four academic traditions:

Spatial Tradition - the investigation of the phenomena of geography from a strictly spatial perspective.

Area Studies Tradition - the geographical study of an area on the Earth at either the local, regional, or global scale.

Human-Land Tradition - the geographical study of human interactions with the environment.

Earth Science Tradition - the study of natural phenomena from a spatial perspective. This tradition is best described as theoretical physical geography.

Today, the academic traditions described by Pattison are still dominant fields of geographical investigation. However, the frequency and magnitude of human mediated environmental problems has been on a steady increase since the publication of this notion. These increases are the result of a growing human population and the consequent increase in the consumption of natural resources. As a result, an increasing number of researchers in geography are studying how humans modify the environment. A significant number of these projects also develop strategies to reduce the negative impact of human activities on nature. Some of the dominant themes in these studies include: environmental degradation of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere; resource use issues; natural hazards; environmental impact assessment; and the effect of urbanization and land-use change on natural environments.

Considering all of the statements presented concerning the history and development of geography, we are now ready to formulate a somewhat coherent definition. This definition suggests that geography, in its simplest form, is the field of knowledge that is concerned with how phenomena are spatially organized. Physical geography attempts to determine why natural phenomena have particular spatial patterns and orientation. This online textbook will focus primarily on the Earth Science Tradition. Some of the information that is covered in this textbook also deals with the alterations of the environment because of human interaction. These pieces of information belong in the Human-Land Tradition of geography.

History of Geography and Physical Geography

Some of the first truly geographical studies occurred more than four thousand years ago. The main purpose of these early investigations was to map features and places observed as explorers traveled to new lands. At this time, Chinese, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations were beginning to explore the places and spaces within and outside their homelands. The earliest evidence of such explorations comes from the archaeological discovery of a Babylonian clay tablet map that dates back to 2300 BC.

The early Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form of geography that was more than mere map making or cartography. Greek philosophers and scientist were also interested in learning about spatial nature of human and physical features found on the Earth. One of the first Greek geographers was Herodotus (circa 484 - 425 BC). Herodotus wrote a number of volumes that described the human and physical geography of the various regions of the Persian Empire.

The ancient Greeks were also interested in the form, size, and geometry of the Earth. Aristotle (circa 384 - 322 BC) hypothesized and scientifically demonstrated that the Earth had a spherical shape. Evidence for this idea came from observations of lunar eclipses. Lunar eclipses occur when the Earth casts its circular shadow on to the moon's surface. The first individual to accurately calculate the circumference of the Earth was the Greek geographer Eratosthenes (circa 276 - 194 BC). Eratosthenes calculated the equatorial circumference to be 40,233 kilometers using simple geometric relationships. This primitive calculation was unusually accurate. Measurements of the Earth using modern satellite technology have computed the circumference to be 40,072 kilometers.

Most of the Greek accomplishments in geography were passed on to the Romans. Roman military commanders and administrators used this information to guide the expansion of their Empire. The Romans also made several important additions to geographical knowledge. Strabo (circa 64 BC - 20 AD) wrote a 17 volume series called "Geographia". Strabo claimed to have traveled widely and recorded what he had seen and experienced from a geographical perspective. In his series of books, Strabo describes the cultural geographies of the various societies of people found from Britain to as far east as India, and south to Ethiopia and as far north as Iceland. Strabo also suggested a definition of geography that is quite complementary to the way many human geographers define their discipline today. This definition suggests that the aim of geography was to "describe the known parts of the inhabited world ... to write the assessment of the countries of the world [and] to treat the differences between countries".

During the second century AD, Ptolemy (circa 100 - 178 AD) made a number of important contributions to geography. Ptolemy's publication Geographike hyphegesis or "Guide to Geography" compiled and summarize much of the Greek and Roman geographic information accumulated at that time. Some of his other important contributions include the creation of three different methods for projecting the Earth's surface on a map, the calculation of coordinate locations for some eight thousand places on the Earth, and development of the concepts of geographical latitude and longitude (Figure 1a-1).

Figure 1a-1: This early map of the world was constructed using map making techniques developed by Ptolemy. Note that the map is organized with crisscrossing lines of latitude and longitude.

Little academic progress in geography occurred after the Roman period. For the most part, the Middle Ages (5th to 13th centuries AD) were a time of intellectual stagnation. In Europe, the Vikings of Scandinavia were the only group of people carrying out active exploration of new lands. In the Middle East, Arab academics began translating the works of Greek and Roman geographers starting in the 8th century and began exploring southwestern Asia and Africa. Some of the important intellectuals in Arab geography were Al-Idrisi, Ibn Battutah, and Ibn Khaldun. Al-Idrisi is best known for his skill at making maps and for his work of descriptive geography Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq or "The Pleasure Excursion of One Who Is Eager to Traverse the Regions of the World". Ibn Battutah and Ibn Khaldun are well known for writing about their extensive travels of North Africa and the Middle East.

During the Renaissance (1400 to 1600 AD) numerous journeys of geographical exploration were commissioned by a variety of nation states in Europe. Most of these voyages were financed because of the potential commercial returns from resource exploitation. The voyages also provided an opportunity for scientific investigation and discovery. These voyages also added many significant contributions to geographic knowledge (Figure 1a-2). Important explorers of this period include Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, Jacques Cartier, Sir Martin Frobisher, Sir Francis Drake, John and Sebastian Cabot, and John Davis. Also during the Renaissance, Martin Behaim created a spherical globe depicting the Earth in its true three-dimensional form in 1492. Behaim's invention was a significant advance over two-dimensional maps because it created a more realistic depiction of the Earth's shape and surface configuration.

Figure 1a-2: This map was constructed by Oliva in 1560. It describes the known world at this time and suggests that North America is part of Asia. Further exploration of the world would soon reject this idea.

In the 17th century, Bernhardus Varenius (1622-1650) published an important geographic reference titled Geographia generalis (General Geography: 1650). In this volume, Varenius used direct observations and primary measurements to present some new ideas concerning geographic knowledge. This work continued to be a standard geographic reference for about a 100 years. Varenius also suggested that the discipline of geography could be subdivided into three distinct branches. The first branch examines the form and dimensions of the Earth. The second sub-discipline deals with tides, climatic variations over time and space, and other variables that are influenced by the cyclical movements of the Sun and moon. Together these two branches form the early beginning of what we collectively now call physical geography. The last branch of geography examined distinct regions on the Earth using comparative cultural studies. Today, this area of knowledge is called cultural geography.

During the 18th century, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) proposed that human knowledge could be organized in three different ways. One way of organizing knowledge was to classify its facts according to the type of objects studied. Accordingly, zoology studies animals, botany examines plants, and geology involves the investigation of rocks. The second way one can study things is according to a temporal dimension. This field of knowledge is of course called history. The last method of organizing knowledge involves understanding facts relative to spatial relationships. This field of knowledge is commonly known as geography. Kant also divided geography into a number of sub-disciplines. He recognized the following six branches: Physical, mathematical, moral, political, commercial, and theological geography.

Geographic knowledge saw strong growth in Europe and the United States in the 1800s. This period also saw the emergence of a number of societies interested in geographic issues. In Germany, Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Ritter, and Fredrich Ratzel made substantial contributions to human and physical geography. Humboldt's publication Kosmos (1844) examines the geology and physical geography of the Earth. This work is considered by many academics to be a milestone contribution to geographic scholarship. Late in the 19th Century, Ratzel theorized that the distribution and culture of the Earth's various human populations was strongly influenced by the natural environment. The French geographer Paul Vidal de la Blanche opposed this revolutionary idea. Instead, he suggested that human beings were a dominant force shaping the form of the environment. The idea that humans were modifying the physical environment was also prevalent in the United States. In 1847, George Perkins Marsh gave an address to the Agricultural Society of Rutland County, Vermont. The subject of this speech was that human activity was having a destructive impact on land, especially through deforestation and land conversion. This speech also became the foundation for his book Man and Nature or The Earth as Modified by Human Action, first published in 1864. In this publication, Marsh warned of the ecological consequences of the continued development of the American frontier.

During the first 50 years of the 1900s, many academics in the field of geography extended the various ideas presented in the previous century to studies of small regions all over the world. Most of these studies used descriptive field methods to test research questions. Starting in about 1950, geographic research experienced a shift in methodology. Geographers began adopting a more scientific approach that relied on quantitative techniques. The quantitative revolution was also associated with a change in the way in which geographers studied the Earth and its phenomena. Researchers now began investigating process rather than mere description of the event of interest. Today, the quantitative approach is becoming even more prevalent due to advances in computer and software technologies.

In 1964, William Pattison published an article in the Journal of Geography (1964, 63: 211-216) that suggested that modern Geography was now composed of the following four academic traditions:

Spatial Tradition - the investigation of the phenomena of geography from a strictly spatial perspective.

Area Studies Tradition - the geographical study of an area on the Earth at either the local, regional, or global scale.

Human-Land Tradition - the geographical study of human interactions with the environment.

Earth Science Tradition - the study of natural phenomena from a spatial perspective. This tradition is best described as theoretical physical geography.

Today, the academic traditions described by Pattison are still dominant fields of geographical investigation. However, the frequency and magnitude of human mediated environmental problems has been on a steady increase since the publication of this notion. These increases are the result of a growing human population and the consequent increase in the consumption of natural resources. As a result, an increasing number of researchers in geography are studying how humans modify the environment. A significant number of these projects also develop strategies to reduce the negative impact of human activities on nature. Some of the dominant themes in these studies include: environmental degradation of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere; resource use issues; natural hazards; environmental impact assessment; and the effect of urbanization and land-use change on natural environments.

Considering all of the statements presented concerning the history and development of geography, we are now ready to formulate a somewhat coherent definition. This definition suggests that geography, in its simplest form, is the field of knowledge that is concerned with how phenomena are spatially organized. Physical geography attempts to determine why natural phenomena have particular spatial patterns and orientation. This online textbook will focus primarily on the Earth Science Tradition. Some of the information that is covered in this textbook also deals with the alterations of the environment because of human interaction. These pieces of information belong in the Human-Land Tradition of geography.

History of Geography and Physical Geography

Some of the first truly geographical studies occurred more than four thousand years ago. The main purpose of these early investigations was to map features and places observed as explorers traveled to new lands. At this time, Chinese, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations were beginning to explore the places and spaces within and outside their homelands. The earliest evidence of such explorations comes from the archaeological discovery of a Babylonian clay tablet map that dates back to 2300 BC.

The early Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form of geography that was more than mere map making or cartography. Greek philosophers and scientist were also interested in learning about spatial nature of human and physical features found on the Earth. One of the first Greek geographers was Herodotus (circa 484 - 425 BC). Herodotus wrote a number of volumes that described the human and physical geography of the various regions of the Persian Empire.

The ancient Greeks were also interested in the form, size, and geometry of the Earth. Aristotle (circa 384 - 322 BC) hypothesized and scientifically demonstrated that the Earth had a spherical shape. Evidence for this idea came from observations of lunar eclipses. Lunar eclipses occur when the Earth casts its circular shadow on to the moon's surface. The first individual to accurately calculate the circumference of the Earth was the Greek geographer Eratosthenes (circa 276 - 194 BC). Eratosthenes calculated the equatorial circumference to be 40,233 kilometers using simple geometric relationships. This primitive calculation was unusually accurate. Measurements of the Earth using modern satellite technology have computed the circumference to be 40,072 kilometers.

Most of the Greek accomplishments in geography were passed on to the Romans. Roman military commanders and administrators used this information to guide the expansion of their Empire. The Romans also made several important additions to geographical knowledge. Strabo (circa 64 BC - 20 AD) wrote a 17 volume series called "Geographia". Strabo claimed to have traveled widely and recorded what he had seen and experienced from a geographical perspective. In his series of books, Strabo describes the cultural geographies of the various societies of people found from Britain to as far east as India, and south to Ethiopia and as far north as Iceland. Strabo also suggested a definition of geography that is quite complementary to the way many human geographers define their discipline today. This definition suggests that the aim of geography was to "describe the known parts of the inhabited world ... to write the assessment of the countries of the world [and] to treat the differences between countries".

During the second century AD, Ptolemy (circa 100 - 178 AD) made a number of important contributions to geography. Ptolemy's publication Geographike hyphegesis or "Guide to Geography" compiled and summarize much of the Greek and Roman geographic information accumulated at that time. Some of his other important contributions include the creation of three different methods for projecting the Earth's surface on a map, the calculation of coordinate locations for some eight thousand places on the Earth, and development of the concepts of geographical latitude and longitude (Figure 1a-1).

Figure 1a-1: This early map of the world was constructed using map making techniques developed by Ptolemy. Note that the map is organized with crisscrossing lines of latitude and longitude.

Little academic progress in geography occurred after the Roman period. For the most part, the Middle Ages (5th to 13th centuries AD) were a time of intellectual stagnation. In Europe, the Vikings of Scandinavia were the only group of people carrying out active exploration of new lands. In the Middle East, Arab academics began translating the works of Greek and Roman geographers starting in the 8th century and began exploring southwestern Asia and Africa. Some of the important intellectuals in Arab geography were Al-Idrisi, Ibn Battutah, and Ibn Khaldun. Al-Idrisi is best known for his skill at making maps and for his work of descriptive geography Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq or "The Pleasure Excursion of One Who Is Eager to Traverse the Regions of the World". Ibn Battutah and Ibn Khaldun are well known for writing about their extensive travels of North Africa and the Middle East.

During the Renaissance (1400 to 1600 AD) numerous journeys of geographical exploration were commissioned by a variety of nation states in Europe. Most of these voyages were financed because of the potential commercial returns from resource exploitation. The voyages also provided an opportunity for scientific investigation and discovery. These voyages also added many significant contributions to geographic knowledge (Figure 1a-2). Important explorers of this period include Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, Jacques Cartier, Sir Martin Frobisher, Sir Francis Drake, John and Sebastian Cabot, and John Davis. Also during the Renaissance, Martin Behaim created a spherical globe depicting the Earth in its true three-dimensional form in 1492. Behaim's invention was a significant advance over two-dimensional maps because it created a more realistic depiction of the Earth's shape and surface configuration.

Figure 1a-2: This map was constructed by Oliva in 1560. It describes the known world at this time and suggests that North America is part of Asia. Further exploration of the world would soon reject this idea.

In the 17th century, Bernhardus Varenius (1622-1650) published an important geographic reference titled Geographia generalis (General Geography: 1650). In this volume, Varenius used direct observations and primary measurements to present some new ideas concerning geographic knowledge. This work continued to be a standard geographic reference for about a 100 years. Varenius also suggested that the discipline of geography could be subdivided into three distinct branches. The first branch examines the form and dimensions of the Earth. The second sub-discipline deals with tides, climatic variations over time and space, and other variables that are influenced by the cyclical movements of the Sun and moon. Together these two branches form the early beginning of what we collectively now call physical geography. The last branch of geography examined distinct regions on the Earth using comparative cultural studies. Today, this area of knowledge is called cultural geography.

During the 18th century, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) proposed that human knowledge could be organized in three different ways. One way of organizing knowledge was to classify its facts according to the type of objects studied. Accordingly, zoology studies animals, botany examines plants, and geology involves the investigation of rocks. The second way one can study things is according to a temporal dimension. This field of knowledge is of course called history. The last method of organizing knowledge involves understanding facts relative to spatial relationships. This field of knowledge is commonly known as geography. Kant also divided geography into a number of sub-disciplines. He recognized the following six branches: Physical, mathematical, moral, political, commercial, and theological geography.

Geographic knowledge saw strong growth in Europe and the United States in the 1800s. This period also saw the emergence of a number of societies interested in geographic issues. In Germany, Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Ritter, and Fredrich Ratzel made substantial contributions to human and physical geography. Humboldt's publication Kosmos (1844) examines the geology and physical geography of the Earth. This work is considered by many academics to be a milestone contribution to geographic scholarship. Late in the 19th Century, Ratzel theorized that the distribution and culture of the Earth's various human populations was strongly influenced by the natural environment. The French geographer Paul Vidal de la Blanche opposed this revolutionary idea. Instead, he suggested that human beings were a dominant force shaping the form of the environment. The idea that humans were modifying the physical environment was also prevalent in the United States. In 1847, George Perkins Marsh gave an address to the Agricultural Society of Rutland County, Vermont. The subject of this speech was that human activity was having a destructive impact on land, especially through deforestation and land conversion. This speech also became the foundation for his book Man and Nature or The Earth as Modified by Human Action, first published in 1864. In this publication, Marsh warned of the ecological consequences of the continued development of the American frontier.

During the first 50 years of the 1900s, many academics in the field of geography extended the various ideas presented in the previous century to studies of small regions all over the world. Most of these studies used descriptive field methods to test research questions. Starting in about 1950, geographic research experienced a shift in methodology. Geographers began adopting a more scientific approach that relied on quantitative techniques. The quantitative revolution was also associated with a change in the way in which geographers studied the Earth and its phenomena. Researchers now began investigating process rather than mere description of the event of interest. Today, the quantitative approach is becoming even more prevalent due to advances in computer and software technologies.

In 1964, William Pattison published an article in the Journal of Geography (1964, 63: 211-216) that suggested that modern Geography was now composed of the following four academic traditions:

Spatial Tradition - the investigation of the phenomena of geography from a strictly spatial perspective.

Area Studies Tradition - the geographical study of an area on the Earth at either the local, regional, or global scale.

Human-Land Tradition - the geographical study of human interactions with the environment.

Earth Science Tradition - the study of natural phenomena from a spatial perspective. This tradition is best described as theoretical physical geography.

Today, the academic traditions described by Pattison are still dominant fields of geographical investigation. However, the frequency and magnitude of human mediated environmental problems has been on a steady increase since the publication of this notion. These increases are the result of a growing human population and the consequent increase in the consumption of natural resources. As a result, an increasing number of researchers in geography are studying how humans modify the environment. A significant number of these projects also develop strategies to reduce the negative impact of human activities on nature. Some of the dominant themes in these studies include: environmental degradation of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere; resource use issues; natural hazards; environmental impact assessment; and the effect of urbanization and land-use change on natural environments.

Considering all of the statements presented concerning the history and development of geography, we are now ready to formulate a somewhat coherent definition. This definition suggests that geography, in its simplest form, is the field of knowledge that is concerned with how phenomena are spatially organized. Physical geography attempts to determine why natural phenomena have particular spatial patterns and orientation. This online textbook will focus primarily on the Earth Science Tradition. Some of the information that is covered in this textbook also deals with the alterations of the environment because of human interaction. These pieces of information belong in the Human-Land Tradition of geography.

CAUSES OF CURRENCY DEPRECIATION

Real Causes Of Currency Depreciation

In 2008, a trader paid one Ghana Cedi for one U.S. dollar, but at the beginning of April 2012, the same trader travelling to Dubai paid GH¢1.74 for one U.S. dollar.

This means that year-on-year decline in the value of cedi against the US dollar was 74 per cent over a three-year period.

A point to note is that during the global economic crises of 2008-2009, the cedi depreciated by 25 per cent against the dollar.

Between 2010 and 2011, the cedi again depreciated 18.5 per cent against the US dollar.  For last month, the cedi exchange rate depreciated 4.29 percent against the US dollar.

So is the current downward slide in the cedi value as a result of the slowdown in the global economy or due to internal structural weaknesses?  This question requires a detailed research work beyond the scope of this article but it is a very relevant question to ask at this time.

In economics, depreciation is basically the symptoms of an underlying problem, specifically imbalances in the Balance of Payment (BOP), emanating from excess demand for dollars. So instead of discussing the depreciating cedi, I will rather focus my attention on the causes or factors that cause currency to depreciate and what the government can do to arrest this problem in special cases. 

Before then, I must let readers know the difference between currency fluctuation and depreciation. Fluctuations in currency value are a common event and are usually no cause for concern. The minor daily increases and decreases in value are generally due to “random walk” and not due to an economic event or fundamental problems.

However, changes in currency value become significant when the decline in value of the currency is an ongoing trend. Technically, when currency depreciates, it loses value and purchasing power, with impact on the real sectors of the economy.

Although, the economic effects of a lower cedi take time to happen, there are time lags between a change in the exchange rate and changes in commodity prices.

Factors that determine the value of a currency include the current state of the overall economy, inflation, trade balance (the difference between the value of export and import), level of political stability, etc.

Occasionally, external factors like currency speculations on the foreign exchange market can also contribute to depreciation of the local currency.  Such being the case, a government can intervene into the foreign exchange market to support its national currency and suppress the process of depreciation.

Currency depreciation can positively impact the overall economic development, though. It boosts competitiveness through lower export costs and secures more income from exported goods in a similar way devaluation does.

On the contrary, depreciation makes imports more expensive and discourages purchases of imported goods stimulating demand for domestically manufactured goods.

Globally, governments intentionally influence the value of their currency utilising the powerful tool of the base interest rates, which are usually set by the country's central bank and this tool is often used to intentionally depreciate the currency rates to encourage exports. Factors that can cause a currency to depreciate are:

Supply and Demand

•    Just as with goods and services, the principles of supply and demand apply to the appreciation and depreciation of currency values. If a country injects new currency into its economy, it increases the money supply. When there is more money circulating in an economy, there is less demand. This depreciates the value of the currency. On the other hand, when there is a high domestic or foreign demand for a country's currency, the currency appreciates in value.

Inflation

•    Inflation occurs when the general prices of goods and services in a country increase. Inflation causes the value of the cedi to depreciate, reducing purchasing power. If there is rampant inflation, then a currency will depreciate in value.
What causes inflation?

•    Printing Money. Note printing money does not always cause inflation. It will occur when the money supply is increased faster than the growth of real output.

•    Note: the link between printing money and causing inflation is not straightforward. The money supply does not just depend on the amount the government prints.

•    Large National Debt. To finance large national debts, governments often print money and this can cause inflation.
Economic Outlook

If a country's economy is in a slow growth or recessionary phase, the value of their currency depreciates. The value of a country's currency also depreciates if its major economic indicators like retail sales and Gross Domestic Product, or GDP, are declining. A high and/or rising unemployment rate can also depreciate currency value because it indicates an economic slowdown. If a country's economy is in a strong growth period, the value of their currency appreciates.

Trade Deficits

A trade deficit occurs when the value of goods a country imports is more than the value of goods it exports. When the trade deficit of a country increases, the value of the domestic currency depreciates against the value of the currency of its trading partners.

The demand for imports should fall as imports become more expensive. However, some imports are essential for production or cannot be made in the country and have an inelastic demand—we end up spending more on these when the exchange rate falls in value. This can cause the balance of payments to worsen in the short run (a process known as the J curve effect)

Collapse of Confidence

If there is a collapse of confidence in an economy or financial sector, this will lead to an outflow of currency as people do not want to risk losing their currency. Therefore, this causes an outflow of capital and depreciation in the exchange rate. Collapse in confidence can be due to political or economic factors.

Price of Commodities

If an economy depends on exports of raw materials, a fall in the price of this raw material can cause a fall in export revenue and depreciation in the exchange rate. For example, in 2011, a ton of cocoa sold for US4,000 per ton. Currently, it is going for US$2,300 per ton, translating into fewer inflows of dollars.

Interest rate Differential

I will use the International Fischer Effect to explain the relationship between the expected change in the current exchange rate between the cedi and the dollar, which is approximately equivalent to the difference between Ghana and US’ nominal interest rates for that time.

For example, if the average interest rate in Ghana for 2011 was 24 per cent and for US was three pre cent, then the dollar should appreciate roughly 21 per cent or the cedi must depreciate 21 per cent compared to the dollar to restore parity.

The rationale for the IFE is that a country with a higher interest rate will also tend to have a higher inflation rate. This increased amount of inflation should cause the currency in the country with the high interest rate to depreciate against a country with lower
interest rates.

Market Speculations

Market speculations can contribute to a process of spiraling depreciation after smaller market players decide to follow the example of the leading dealers, the so-called market makers, and after they lost confidence in a particular currency start to sell it in bulk amounts. Then only a quick reaction of the country's central bank can restore the confidence of investors and stop the currency rates of the nation's currency from continuous decline.

When the currency depreciation is based on market speculations, in other words, not backed by fundamental economic factors, then the central bank comes to the rescue- intervene.

A sterilised intervention against depreciation can only be effective in the medium term if the underlying cause behind the currency's loss of value can be addressed. If the cause was a speculative attack based on political uncertainty this can potentially be resolved.

Because after a sterilised intervention the money supply remains unchanged at its high level, the locally available interest rates can still be relatively low, so the carry trade continues and if it still wants to prevent depreciation the central bank has to intervene again. This can only go on so long before the bank runs out of foreign currency reserves.

In conclusion, currency depreciation is the result of fundamental deficiencies with the domestic economy which must be corrected over a period of time to restore balance. However, where the depreciation is out of speculative attacks on the currency, then the central bank can intervene to correct the temporary anomalies, which, often is short term in nature.

Lastly, intervention in the foreign exchange market by the central bank to correct fundamental weaknesses, just like the Ghanaian situation will not work, because, very soon, the central bank will run out of international reserves; hence, the cedi must therefore seek its equilibrium level.
 
The writer is an economic consultant and former Assistant Professor of Finance and Economics at Alabama State University. Montgomery, Alabama. rockvile2009@yahoo.com

UNIVERSITY FEES/CHARGES: 2012-2013 ACADEMIC YEAR FRESHMEN (NON-DEGREE & UNDERGRADUATE)

not clear, download Legon fees schedule here

UG REGISTRATION PROCESS

GHANAIAN STUDENTS
Full registration involves:

• Payment of Fees
• Academic Registration
• Hall Registration (Residential Students only)

STEP 1:    Payment of Fees
All students (Main Campus/Accra City Campus/Distance Education/Korle-Bu) are to pay their Academic/Residential (where applicable) Fees at any branch of Standard Chartered Bank or ECOBANK.  Ensure that you quote correctly your Student Number on all the pay-in-slips. Click to view the Schedule of Fees.
Please note that it takes 48hours to register after payment has been made.
STEP 2:     Academic/ Course Registration
Undertake on-line academic/course registration 48hours after payment of fees BEFORE YOU ARRIVE ON CAMPUS. 
Access on-line registration steps here.
Click Here! Note: Registration at the Hall of residence will only be successful if student has registered on-line and has a proof of registration.
STEP 3:   Hall Registration (Residential Students Only)
Upon arrival, proceed to the Hall of Residence with your Proof of Registration to undertake Hall Registration.

The  WASSCE RESULTS  of Nigeria candidates has been released last Friday. There are several circulations on  the internet and rumors roaming that the West African Examination Council (WAEC)  has released the 2012 WASSCE results. It is not true as at the day of publication of this   Blog. Indeed , I wish to inform the Ghanaian populace that according to undisclosed sources , the WASSCE results would be released by the end of this week. While It is rumored that the pass is gargantuan, and has surpass the pass three years performance.

Patience , patience, patience.

Ghana!

Do not believe anybody that proposes to influence your results.

NEWS FROM GHANA: NDC holds Greater Accra Regional rally tomorrow ...

NEWS FROM GHANA: NDC holds Greater Accra Regional rally tomorrow ...: NDC holds Greater Accra Regional rally tomorrow Thousands of supporters of the ru...

NDC holds Greater Accra Regional rally tomorrow

Thousands of supporters of the ruling National Democratic Congress, NDC, are expected to converge on the Mantse Agbonaa park tomorrow for the Party's rally.

The rally under the auspices of the Greater Accra NDC, will be used to outdoor the party's Parliamentary candidates for the region.

It is the first political rally of the NDC three years after it won power.

Speaking to Radio Ghana, the Deputy Greater Accra Regional Minister, Isaac Vanderpuiye, said all arrangements have been made to ensure the success of the rally.

GBC NEW S

A Mother's Love

Once upon a time, in the village of Mempeasem, it was considered a taboo to give birth to a physically challenged child.

The chief who reigned at that time disliked children with disabilities, to the extent that he was able to convince his elders to pass a law forbidding the presence of such children in the village.

He told them such children were a curse sent to humans as punishment for offending the gods. Therefore, under the law, before those children reached age five, they were sent to the evil forest and abandoned after the chief priest had performed certain rituals.

It happened that Eno Ama Nyarkoah and Agya Kwabena Nsiah had been married for years without a child. Finally, Eno Nyarkoah  conceived and bore a beautiful baby girl called Oforiwaa. Sadly, two years after the birth of Oforiwaa, it was realised that she was disabled from the waist and as a result, could not walk.

Eno Nyarkoah decided to keep it a secret but somehow, the whole village got to know of it. When the chief and elders heard of it, as custom demanded, Oforiwaa was supposed to be sent to the evil forest.

However, Eno Nyarkoah stuck to her guns and insisted that she would not allow her only child to be abandoned in the forest just because she was a cripple.

The chief and the elders, therefore, banished Eno and her daughter from the village. Eno Nyarkoah was happy at the turn of events and assumed that Agya Nsiah would support her but he did not.  Instead, he told Eno Nyarkoah that if she would not respect the custom of the land, then he would not accompany her.

Eno Nyarkoah, therefore, left Mempeasem for a village called Meniagye which was very far away. Eno Nyarkoah knew a great deal about herbal plants and their usefulness, therefore, she started applying the herbs on the sick in that village and soon, a lot of people came to her  to seek treatment for their ailments.

Oforiwaa began to learn from her mother so that she could be of assistance. By the time she reached her teens, she knew a great deal about herbal plants and the many ailments that they cured. Because of the good work they did, Meniagye village became popular and people came from far and near to seek their help.

Soon, age caught up with Eno Nyarkoah, therefore, she could not work as much as she should. Oforiwaa, therefore,  took over everything.

Meanwhile, at Mempeasem, the chief whose reign saw the passage of the law that did not recognise physically challenged people, fell seriously ill.  His elders did all they could but he did not recover.

He learnt of the great herbalist at Meniagye and decided to go there with some of his elders to seek a cure for his illness. They set off very early that day. When they got to the compound of Eno Nyarkoah, they found only Oforiwaa there because by then her mother had gone to the forest for herbal plants. After telling her their mission, Oforiwaa decided to help them.

As would be expected because of the chief's negative perception about people with disabilities, he was reluctant to take the concoction given to him by Oforiwaa. It took a lot of prodding from his elders before he did. After drinking the concoction, he went to his hut to sleep and by the time he woke up that evening he felt totally renewed. He took another dose that evening before finally retiring to sleep. The next morning he was completely healed.

Happily, he and his entourage decided to go and inform Oforiwaa about the happy news. It was there that they met Eno Nyarkoah, who was busily washing some herbs she had gathered from the forest. The chief and his entourage immediately recognised Eno Nyarkoah.

The moment Eno Nyarkoah asked them what they were doing in her house, they realised that Oforiwaa, who had restored the health of the chief was her daughter. The chief and elders then begged for their forgiveness.

Oforiwaa  was confused about all that was going on. Her mother, therefore, chose that moment to explain to her the story surrounding her life. The chief and his elders realised how immature they had been in passing that law.

Immediately, they acknowledged that disability was not a curse and realised the harm they had caused to all the innocent children they abandoned in the forest.

They decided to abolish that cruel law as soon as they got to Mempeasem and pleaded with  Oforiwaa and her mother to return to their kith and kin.

Indeed, when the chief and his elders returned to Mempeasem, they abolished the law on disability and today, the people of Mempeasem live peacefully with the physically and mentally challenged.

Disability is not an inability. It is not the fault of a child to be born with a physical or mental challenge.  Let us not shun such people;  rather, we should treat them with respect and love because given the right opportunities they can contribute to the development of the nation just as all others do

Henrietta Oforiwaa Darko,
T.I. Ahmadiyya JHS 'B',
Asokwa, Kumasi.